summary of "Women Writing the Nation" by Susie Tharu & K.Lalitha

Women Writing the Nation

Susie Tharu & K.Lalitha

The essay “Women Writing the Nation” is an extract from the introduction of the book titled The Twentieth Century: Women Writing the Nation written by Susie Tharu & K.Lalitha. They talk about the Indian women writing, its theme and style especially after independence. The introduction part advises the readers to read women writing against the conventional methods in order to understand the challenges undergone by the women writers.

The essay begins by stating the decades 1940s and 1950s concluded the long and unhappy period of imperial domination. Moreover those decades presented the initiation of new authorities and hence new skills were circulated among the Indians. It resulted in the establishment of imaginative geography of India. Such established notions/ skills were extended and reworked in the second half of the twentieth century. At present people expect a feminist literary history to project the forces/struggles the women writers underwent to read and write literary texts during their hard times instead of giving it as repetition of rebellious act or as a dream to win. They expect the feminist literary history to present a different approach by highlighting the women writers’ conflicts in the then determined world and about women’s position. Such history should read literary texts to point out the real world’s task, rather focusing upon the aesthetic effects. In addition the writers want the feminist literary history to present schemes of the nation by reading such texts in unconventional way. Thus women’s writing enables the readers to know a history of feminist initiatives, its situations.  Such reading will reveal a literary text as a source of information about the debate, protest and negotiation which are closely connected to women in each historical moment.

The narratives of women across the nation contribute powerful articulation through which the world is recreated. The book The Twentieth Century: Women Writing the Nation focuses on three major themes:  

1.     Questions the emergence of caste and communalism during Swadeshi Strand                  of the Nationalist Movement

2.     Raises the issue of gender and class in the context of the Progressive Writer’s Associations

3.     Women’s movement of the 1920’s and 1930’s which is shaped by the liberal electoralism.

By dwelling on these three major themes, the work attempts to understand gender and nation –in process, to provide the narrative and analytical context especially to the works from the 1970’s, the third phase of the modern women’s movement. The authors believe that such reading will illustrate the construction of gender. Moreover they aim to bring out the transformation of themes and languages of the women writing in the cultural politics of each period. It enables the readers to understand the difficulties and challenges inherited by the women writers of the 1970's.

"Decolonising the Mind" by Ngugi wa Thiong’o- summary

The essay “Decolonising the Mind” is written by Ngugi wa Thiong’o, an African writer. Many countries were colonized by the Europeans in the past. They introduced their culture and language in the colonized countries as part of their own development. English was forced into the colonized countries as an official language by the British, which also colonized the mind of the natives. Even after decolonization of such countries by the British, people of those countries are still colonized mentally. They celebrate the British language and try to mimic the British. This essay talks about the implementation of  English as the official language by the British in the colonized countries, impact of such act upon the native languages and its present condition. This essay also tries to give suggestion to decolonize the mind. Thiong’o uses a suitable title by providing suggestions to decolonize the mind.

          Thiong’o talks about his personal experience with his mother tongue and the English language. He was born in a larger family with around 35 members. Their mother tongue was Gikuyu and it was used for communication. He remembers the evenings of storytelling around the fireside with his family members. The grownups narrated stories to the children and the following day the children would retell the stories while working in the fields. The stories were narrated in Gikuyu and most of them had animals as main characters, especially hare, though small, it was full of wit and cunning. The children identified themselves with hare as it struggled against big animals like lion, leopard or hyena. The children personified the victory of hare as their victories and it developed their confidence as the weak could outwit the strong. The children were also interested to observe the hostile natural elements which confront for animals cooperation and sometimes their struggles amongst themselves. The children compared the animals struggle against nature and other animals with the real life struggles of the human.

Stories with humans as the lead role had the central theme: togetherness is ultimate for a community. Those stories had two sets of characters (1) humans with all positive characterization and (2) humans with all negative characters, who could eat other humans. Such stories cultivated moral values among the children. Thiong’o talks about good and bad storytelling. The good storytellers could narrate the same story interestingly many times with rich usage of different words and images with varying tones of voices. This kind of effective storytelling enabled the children to understand the value of words. He believes that language is not a mere connection of words but it is a powerful one. They enriched that power though language games like riddles, proverbs. It enabled them to understand the music of the language and also they could view the world with its images and symbols. The language they used in their house and the community was the same.

          Thiong’o joined school and during the first four years of schooling teaching was in his mother tongue. He had a pleasant school experience. Later he joined a colonial school which broke the harmony of the language usage. The language used for education was not his cultural language. After the declaration of a State of Emergency over Kenya in 1952 all the schools were under the guidance of District Education. Thiong’o states that since then English became more than a language in Kenya.

          Thiong’o shares incidents of humiliating experiences undergone by the Gikuyu speaking children in school. Different types of punishments were given (1) five strokes of a cane on their buttocks (2) made to carry a metal plate around the neck with inscriptions of ‘I AM STUPID’ or ‘I AM DONKEY’ (3) fined with unaffordable money. Every day teachers handed over a button to particular students to give it to a student who speaks in mother tongue. At the end of the day the students would give the list of students who had the button that day. This practice transformed the students as traitors to their own community. Moreover attitude towards English language also got changed. Slowly English language was seen as intelligence and ability. People started believing English as the main source for a child’s progress.

          Apart from the racial demarcation, the colonial education system followed a pyramid structure to reduce the number of educators in Africa. The primary system was a broader one and when it goes to the college level the structure becomes very narrow. The students should clear 10 papers from Maths to Science in English. The student who failed in a single paper though very brilliant, could not continue his/her education. Thiong’o remembers a boy who scored distinctions in all subjects except English, later became a turn boy in a bus company. On the other hand Thiong’o who passed with low marks got placed in one of the elitist institutions in colonial Kenya. Students in spite of their brilliancy were denied admission in University colleges due to failure in English language. Hence English was seen as the magic formula for higher education. Consequently Orature (Oral literature) in Kenyan languages has stopped. Moreover, in primary schools they had British and American classics. This increased gap between the usage of mother tongue and English.

          Thiong’o has started writing his works in Gikuyu since 1977. In his  native language he wrote 2 plays, 1 novel and 3 books for children. Since then he was confronted with a question particularly in Europe about the reason for his writing in Gikuyu language. His writing in mother tongue was perceived as an abnormal act. The common practice in other culture, i.e., writing in mother tongue was criticized and questioned that indicate the imperialistic attitude. As a result abnormal was perceived as normal and vice-versa. In reality Africa enriches Europe whereas Africans were made to believe that Europe rescues them from poverty. Africa’s resources like natural and humans developed Europe and America but in reality it is projected in the reverse manner.

          Thiong’o believes that his writing in Gikuyu is a part of the anti-imperialistic struggles of African especially Kenyan people. In educational institutes the Kenyan languages were associated with negative aspects such as underdeveloped, humiliation and punishment. He does not want to see the future generation especially school children growing up in the imperialistic tradition. He wants them to surpass the colonial alienation. Thiong’o gives two interlinked forms of colonial alienation, (1) distancing themselves from the reality around (2) identification with what is most external to one’s environment. This colonial alienations starts with disassociation of a language in educational environment but used at home and society. He compares it with separating a society with bodiless heads and headless bodies.

          Thiong’o visualizes a future where he could see the restoration of harmony in language which enables the Kenyan child to be restored with his/her environment. He desires to see the Kenyan national languages having a literature which reflect the rhythms of the language as well as the natives’ social nature and their struggle with nature. In such a harmonious situation (understanding harmony himself, language and his environment) one can learn other languages and could enjoy revolutionary elements in the other languages without any complex about his/her mother tongue, environment and him/herself. It will benefit the future generation of Kenya to live in harmony.

The Mosquito by D.H. Lawrence- summary

The Mosquito

D. H. Lawrence

The poem ‘The Mosquito’ is taken from D.H. Lawrence’s collection of poem titled Birds, Beasts and Flowers. He is a famous novelist and poet of the 20^th century. The poem uses the poetic technique called ‘pathetic fallacy’ ascribes human emotions to animals and objects.   In this poem the poet talks to the mosquito by treating it as fellow companion.

The poem is in a form of assumed conversation between the poet and a mosquito. The poet raises many questions to the mosquito by using the second person narration ‘you’ regarding its trick. The poet calls the mosquito as ‘Monsieur’ and question when did it start its trick? He observes the movements of the mosquito and comments about its high and shredded legs. It lifts its weightless body and stand upon him without his knowledge. He questions whether it is a ‘phantom’ as it comes and goes without others knowledge. The poet heard a woman calling mosquito as ‘the Winged Victory’ symbolizing its action and triumph. The poet exaggerates that the mosquito listens this and smiles at her.

The poet raises his doubt again to the mosquito that how can it put such cruelty in such a half transparent weak body. It is surprising that with its thin wings and legs, it could sail like a heron in water and in air. Though it looks as nothingness, it is surrounded by evil aura. The mosquito’s secret moves in search of prey give a kind of numbness on the poet’s mind. The poet wonders about its trick and magic to be invisible. The mosquito is very tricky; it prowls and circles around the poet to approach him to devour his blood. Due to its greediness for human blood, he calls it as ‘Ghoul on wings’ (an evil spirit who eats dead bodies).

The poet describes the action of the mosquito. It stands on its thin legs, settle on him and looks at him cunningly in sideways and by knowing his awareness of its presence it speck him. Later by understanding his anger it flies quickly from that place. This bluff game continues between man and mosquito.  The poet calls the mosquito as evil and its bulge in the poet’s ears is an advantage for it and it increases his sudden hatred.

The poet calls its activity of biting as a bad policy and asks a reason for such behavior. As others say it as natural for a mosquito, the poet believes in the destiny of protecting the innocent. According to the poet the sound of the mosquito is like a slogan, which the mosquito makes as a yell of triumph for scratching his scalp. For mosquito blood is super magical liquor. It sucks blood and stands for a second in imposed forgetfulness. It is in silence, without any movement, stuffing blood without permission. The poet feels that the weightlessness of the mosquito saves it from getting killed. Such thoughts develop his ego to kill it in order to prove his power. He kills it and it leaves a stain of his sucked blood and the mosquito disappears as a dim smudge. In the beginning of the poem, the poet looks at the mosquito as powerful almost equal to humans. But in the end it becomes nothing.

Summary of Amitav Ghosh's The Iman and I

The Iman and I

Amitav Ghosh

Amitav Ghosh is an important contemporary writer of Indian English literature. This extract is taken from his autobiographical work In an Antique Land, which is based on Ghosh’s travel to Egypt for his anthropological work. His experience with the local community is narrated in this extract which acts as a combination of history, travelogue, proud of civilisation and fiction.

In Egypt, Ghosh had a friend named Khamees. Of late Khamees was haunted by his childlessness which had an impact on his behaviour. Once on a cold winter day Ghosh visited Khamees’ house and met Khamees and his father. Though the old man was huddled in a blanket, he was shivering due to the cold climate. He invited Ghosh affectionately to sit beside him. The old man worked as a labourer in Alexandria during the World War II and befriended many Indian soldiers that created deep impression in his mind about the Indians. As a result he accepted Ghosh as an intimate member in the family.  The old man by examining the quality of Ghosh’s sweater reminded of the Indian soldiers. The Egyptians were afraid of the Indian soldiers as they were tall and dark. Though the soldiers appeared rough, they were the most generous people. The old man contradicted the generous nature of the Indian soldiers with his children. He complained that his children did not even buy him a better sweater to survive in the winter. Khamees got upset by this complaint and left the room in anger.

The old man happened to be a man of moods. First he complained about his son for not being considerate about the aged father and immediately expressed his concern for his children. He lamented that his daughter was facing hardship in life by taking care of her two sons alone and Khamees suffered due to his childlessness. The old man blames himself for the sufferings of Khamees. Kahmees was married early as the old man wanted to see his grandchildren. This incident enables the writer to know about Khamees trauma due to childlessness.

Later once in a spring season, Ghosh was walking with Khamees across fields and they spotted Imam Ibrahim sitting on the steps of the mosque. Ghosh and Imam used to be friendly earlier but after a feast at Yasir’s house, Imam started neglecting Ghosh’s gesture of friendship. Khamees who was ignorant of the incident requested Ghosh to invite Iman to treat his wife. As Khamees and Iman were not in talking terms, he asked Ghosh to invite Iman. Ghosh was cynical about Iman’s treatment as he used blunt needles and recommending others. But Khamees convinced that Iman would react well as Ghosh was a foreigner.  Iman was talking with an old man. Ghosh greeted Iman and Iman responded for the greeting but turned immediately to the old man. Shocked old man invited Ghosh and introduced Ghosh to Iman as a student of the University of Alexandria from India.

Iman had a difference of opinion about the Indians; due to it he started avoiding Ghosh. He assumed that Indian languages and English were the easiest languages. To express his disapproval of Ghosh being in Egypt, Iman questioned why Ghosh was studying in Egypt without the knowledge of Arabic language. He looked at the cultural practices of Indians as primitive. He expressed his anger by asking why do the Indians worship cow and why do they burn the dead? He states that the Europeans were advanced in science and technology, they did not practice such customs and why the Indians were doing. As Ghosh has travelled Europe, Iman asked him to raise his voice against such primitive practices in his homeland. Ghosh replied that even the Europeans burn the dead in electronic furnaces and like the Europeans the Indians were also advanced in education. Indian had a nuclear explosion too.

As the argument was going on, many people gathered to see the argument.  By understanding the situation Khamees took Ghosh home.

Ghosh looked at their conversation as a claim to the technology of modern violence. He understood that though they both belong to different countries, they both were travelling towards the west and for everyone west meant science and guns and bombs. Both their civilizations are older and they are known for their rich culture and tradition which gave importance for humanity. Contradictorily now they both are fighting to establish their superiority in terms of violence. He felt upset about their controversy as they both broke the harmony people had once in spite of differences. Both of them looked at the west as developed in terms of weapons.

Later at Khamees house, Ghosh considered himself as a conspirator in the betrayal of history. Khamees took him home and comforted him by stating that he would like to visit India later but he concluded with a request of burying him than burning if he dies in India.

This essay presents the transformation of ideology in the course of time. Earlier development meant something related to characteristics and humanity whereas at present advance/development is seen in association with weapons.

summary of Bertolt Brecht's General, Your Tank

General, Your Tank

Bertolt Brecht

The poem “General, Your Tank” is an extract from Bertolt Brecht’s anti-war poem A German War Primer. This poem presents his concern for humanity. It is also an anti war poem where the poet ironically presents the horror of war. His works in general project his concern towards soldiers in war. He states that in general the soldiers fight and get killed in a war but it brings glory to the General. The General is celebrated as a hero whereas the soldier is forgotten.

The poem is addressed to the Generals and each stanza begins with the word General. The poet is the speaker and the addressee is the General. It is in second person narration and it looks as if the speaker is talking to the general in the present. The poet states to the General that his tank is a powerful vehicle which can smash down forests and can crush hundreds of men. Though it is a powerful tank, it needs a human to drive. The General’s bomber is also a powerful one as it flies faster than a storm and carries more weight than an elephant. It too has a defect that it needs a mechanic. Both powerful machines need a human to operate it or to make it powerful. The General has humans who are useful. They can fly and kill in the war and they too have a defect that is they can think. The machines’ defect is they need a man to operate but they are powerful. Where as humans’ defect is their ability to think may be about the consequences of the war. Here thinking becomes a defect as it may enable humans to avoid war by understanding its destructive nature. The poem is an ironic one as it celebrates the two machines as powerful in the beginning and later claims that it needs human to be operated. Unless a human operates they are just objects without any use.

Through the repetition of certain terms the writer is trying to create an impression upon the readers. He believes that if the humans know about their power they can stop the horror caused by war. Through this poem the poet tries to activate the defect of humans in the positive way to create a peaceful world.

Bharati Mukherjee's "Two Ways to Belong in America" summary

 Two Ways to Belong in America

Bharati Mukherjee

 Bharati Mukherjee presents the concept of multiple identities in the immigrant community. This essay presents her personal experience in America and the transformations that America has created on her. The title is significant to the essay as it is about the two ways of belonging by the migrants in America. One is an expatriate, imagining about their home country and second is as an immigrant, accepting the settled land completely.

Bharati along with her sister Mira went to America for education in 1960s. In India they both shared almost identical views on socio-political and cultural issues. They both left India with a decision to return home (India) for marriage after pursuing education in the U.S.

Unexpectedly Mira married an Indian student in America in 1962 and soon they got labour certificate which is necessary for the green card. Mira continues to live in the U.S. for more than 36 years as a legal immigrant with Indian citizenship. She lived with a hope of returning home (India) after her retirement. Bharati married her fellow student who was an American in 1963. By marriage she opted for fluidity, self-invention and renounced caste-observation. Her works are based on these themes and thus they are received as unapologetic texts for cultural and psychological mongrelisation (mixed kind)

Mira and Bharati stayed close over phone conversations. Though they both have differences of opinions, they maintained polite conversation probably that was out of pity. Bharati sympathised her sister Mira for her narrow perception and superficial understanding of the American society. Mira pitied Bharati for the consequences of her marriages like erasure of Indianness and unstructured life style. Later U.S. Vice President Algore’s drive ‘Citizenship USA’ and the increase of illegal immigration changes the tone of the conversation between the sisters. Mira was upset about the implementation of the new immigration policy forced upon the old settlers. She felt that she was manipulated and discarded by the American government. Mira complained that though she invested her knowledge for the development of the American pre-school and obeyed all the rules, America imposed its new rules even upon the legal immigrants. Bharati compares Mira’s interest to stay in America and at the same time her rejection of American citizenship with loveless marriage but which is comfortable and long lasting. Mira is determined to maintain her Indian identity in spite of her long stay in America and she is very particular about not transforming it.

Bharati enquired Mira about her decision (due to the anti-immigration bill of Congress) and her reply was a shock to Bharati. Mira decides to become the U.S. citizen but when she feels like returning India, she will change her citizenship to India. In spite of living for several years in the U.S., still she feels it as a foreign country and she senses a close attachment with India.

In a family, two sisters, who got exposed to the same kind of environment and situations, react in different manner with their immigrant experiences. One is ready to accept the new culture, to move from the expatriate aristocrat to immigrant nobody willingly, whereas the other one sticks with the old. Mira like the larger number of immigrant communities across the globe attached to her home country. However, there is some considerable differences exist between Mira and those hardworking, silenced documented immigrants due to her English fluency, anger and confidence.

Bharati too has undergone betrayal by the Canadian government some 20 years ago. She along with her husband lived in Canada and placed in a good job. In spite of her superior position in merit and job, she was discriminated by the local Canadian society. The feel of betrayal drove many immigrants out of the country. In spite of the disappointment with the settled society, Bharati feels to be like a part of the community wherever she lives (either in Canada or in America)

Bharati concludes the essay by projecting the difference between Mira and herself. Mira lives happily as an expatriate Indian with a hope of returning  India than as an American immigrant. On the other hand Bharati likes to put down her roots in the settled land. She is willing to undergo the trauma of self-transformation in order to become a part of the settled land. This trauma is experienced by the immigrants whereas the expatriates escape from this.

Summary of Margaret Atwood's "Survival"

Survival

Margaret Atwood

The essay title “Survival” is significant to its content as it bothers more about the survival of Canadian literature among the other English literatures. This extract is taken from Margaret Atwood’s introduction to the work titled Survival. It calls for the notice of the Canadians to look at the presence of nativity in the Canadian literature, which enables them to feel associated with it. Atwood, writer of this piece, believes that though works from the other country literatures provide pleasure and knowledge, it always leaves the readers in distance by allowing them to imagine the natural scenery or the specific cultural aspects instead of associating them with that.

          Atwood begins the essay by recollecting her choice of reading during her childhood days. At that time Atwood was ignorant about a distinctive literature called Canadian literature. In schools they read English books from the British and the American literature by Walter Scott, Edger Allen Poe, Donald Duck and also Marvel Comics. Once she received Charles G. D. Roberts’ (The father of Canadian Literature) Kings in Exile as a Christmas present. This book fascinated as well as upset her since the stories are about animals that are caged, trapped and tormented. Later she read Wild Animals I Have Known by Ernest Thompson Seton which had great impact upon her. The story was with real animals in forest and about their deaths in ordinary way that is not always because of tigers but at times even due to rabbits. Along such realistic works, she enjoyed reading sacks of comics on Captain Marvel, Plastic Man (who can reshape his body as he wants), and Batman. She feels such reading is more delightful as it was done with the disapproval of the elders. Reading such work without the knowledge of the elders excited her.

Atwood believes that literature has to be read primarily for entertainment as it provides the delight of excitement and enjoyment. One should experience the pleasure of reading a story. But when one tries to find a message or meaning out of a text, it will be a work but not an entertainment. According to Atwood books provide different levels of entertainment. She considers reading Walter Scott and Marvel Comics as a source of fantasy as they talk more about imaginary places and things. She has never seen such castles and Kryptonite (a place of superheroes) in Canada which distanced the stories from her real life. Though the above mentioned works are more fascinating, she felt Seton and Roberts works as closer to life. The reason for it is her experience of encountering such animals.

   Atwood states that those works were close to her not only because of the content but also due to their pattern. She believes that certain characterisations especially books about animals are more real to her than the books with superhuman. It neither gives confidence in blindfolded way nor has happy ending. Such works exposed one to the struggle for survival like danger of getting lost, eating poisonous food by mistake, and angering some animals. Moreover these works are filled with helpful hints to survive out of unexpected struggles. It gives confidence to face any kind of unexpected problems or huddles in life as no superhero will save the needy in reality.

          Reading moulded Atwood to develop a right kind of expectations from books. Comics and a book like Alice in the Wonderland or Canon Doyle’s The Lost World leaves one with an expectation to be rescued by someone or to return from the world of danger to a safer place. While in Seton and Roberts works the real world and their depiction are one and the same.

          During her high school Atwood received a book as a Christmas present. It was Robert Weaver and Helen James anthology titled Canadian Short Stories. She could find similarities between this anthology and her favourite animal stories. Like those animals, in these stories too she could find humans running, facing or bringing accidents, disasters, experiencing menace not only from a villain character but from anybody. The stories in this collection elated her more as she could connect everything with her location. Hence those stories felt real to her than Charles Dickens works. Charles Dickens is a famous British novelist who presented industrial revolution effectively. Atwood enjoyed reading Dickens works but at the same time she felt that those stories were not realistic as she could not connect it with her locale. 

          Atwood bothers that the present generation Canadian kids read very less Canadian literature than her own generation. She believes that her reading of Canadian literature enabled her to feel the difference between the Canadian literature and the other literatures. As she reads more number works from her native literature, she is very clear about the shapes and the terms of her country literature. This essay aims to advise people to read their native literature as it enables them to experience such specific things from their locale.